Supramolecular structures are held together by intermolecular bondings that are responsible for the organization of polymolecular systems. The non-covalent, intermolecular forces which are required for the assembly of the defined supramolecular structures are mainly electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bondings, van der Waals forces, etc. Supramolecular chemistry or biology gathers a vast body of two or three dimensional complex structures and entities formed by association of chemical or biological species. These associations are governed by the principles of molecular complementarity or molecular recognition and self-assembly. The knowledge of the rules of intermolecular association can be used to design polymolecular assemblies in form of membranes, films, layers, micelles, tubules, gels for a variety of biomedical or technological applications (J.-M. Lehn, Science, 295, 2400-2403, 2002).
Peptides have been used for the fabrication of supramolecular structures through molecular self-assembly (S. Zhang, Nature Biotechnology, 21, 1171-1178, 2003). Peptides are for instance able to assemble into nanotubes (US 7, 79, 84) or into supramolecular hydrogels consisting of three dimensional scaffolds with a large amount of around 98-99% immobilized water or aqueous solution. The peptide-based biomaterials are powerful tools for potential applications in biotechnology, medicine and even technical applications. Depending on the individual properties these peptide-based hydrogels are thought to serve in the development of new materials for tissue engineering, regenerative medicine, as drug and vaccine delivery vehicles or as peptide chips for pharmaceutical research and diagnosis (E. Place et al., Nature Materials, 8, 457-470, 2009). There is also a strong interest to use peptide-based self-assembled biomaterial such as gels for the development of molecular electronic devices (A. R. Hirst et al. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 47, 8002-8018, 2008)
A variety of “smart peptide hydro gels” have been generated that react on external manipulations such as temperature, pH, mechanical influences or other stimuli with a dynamic behavior of swelling, shrinking or decomposing. Nevertheless, these biomaterials are still not “advanced” enough to mimic the biological variability of natural tissues as for example the extracellular matrix (ECM) or cartilage tissue or others. The challenge for a meaningful use of peptide hydrogels is to mimic the replacing natural tissues not only as “space filler” or mechanical scaffold, but to understand and cope with the biochemical signals and physiological requirements that keep the containing cells in the right place and under “in vivo” conditions (R. Fairman and K. Akerfeldt, Current Opinion in Structural Biology, 15, 453-463, 2005). Much effort has been undertaken to understand and control the relationship between peptide sequence and structure for a rational design of suitable hydrogels. In general hydrogels contain macroscopic structures such as fibers that entangle and form meshes. Most of the peptide based hydrogels utilize as their building blocks 0-pleated sheets which assemble to fibers. Later it was shown that it is possible to design hydrogelating self-assembling fibers purely from a-helices. Besides 0-sheet structure-based materials (S. Zhang et al., PNAS, 90, 3334-3338, 1993; A. Aggeli et al., Nature, 386, 259-262, 1997, etc.) a variety of a-helical hydrogels has been developed (W. A. Petka et al., Science, 281, 389-392, 1998; C. Wang et al., Nature, 397, 417-420, 1999; C. Gribbon et al., Biochemistry, 47, 10365-10371, 2008; E. Banwell et al., Nature Materials, 8, 596-600, 2009, etc.).
Nevertheless, the currently known peptide hydrogels are in most of the cases associated with low rigidity, sometimes unfavourable physiological properties and/or complexity and the requirement of substantial processing thereof which leads to high production costs. There is therefore a widely recognized need for peptide hydrogels that are easily formed, non-toxic and have a sufficiently high rigidity for standard applications. The hydrogels should also be suitable for the delivery of bioactive moieties (such as nucleic acids, small molecule therapeutics, cosmetic and anti-microbial agents) and/or for use as biomimetic scaffolds that support the in vivo and in vitro growth of cells and facilitate the regeneration of native tissue.